Research Papers & Abstracts 

Before 2000  |  2000 to Present

15. Emotional Response to Television Commercials: Facial EMG vs. Self Report
    Hazlett, R.L., Hazlett, S.Y., Journal of Advertising Research Vol. 39 (1999)
    As television commercials increasingly contain emotional elements designed both to get the viewer's attention and to communicate the advertising message, copy pretesting is challenged to evaluate the potential effectiveness of these emotionally stimulating commercials and their success at eliciting the intended emotional responses. Standard copy measures, however, do not yield such informative results about emotional responses to commercials. In order to meet this challenge for copy pretesting, we measured the emotional responses to a series of television commercials of both females (aged 20-53 yrs) and males (aged 18-63 yrs) using self-report and facial electromyography (EMG), a validated emotion measure used in academic research. We hypothesized that facial EMG, as compared to self-report, would be a more sensitive discriminator between commercials, would be more strongly related to recall, and peaks in facial EMG responses elicited during the commercial would be temporally related to specific emotion-congruent events in the commercial. Results strongly supported all of our hypotheses and illustrated the promise of facial EMG measures in advertising research and copy pretesting in particular.

16. Facial and Jaw-elevator EMG Activity in Relation to Changes in Performance Level During a Sustained Information Task
    Waterink, W., & Van Boxtel, A., Biological Psychology Vol. 37 (1994)
    Evaluated spontaneous facial EMG activity as an index of mental effort, focusing on whether concordant alterations in task performance level and EMG amplitude exist during a sustained information processing task. The EMG of 6 different facial and jaw-elevator muscles were recorded in 21 Ss performing a 20 min, externally paced, visual 2-choice serial reaction task and in 24 other Ss performing a self-paced version. In both groups there was a gradual increase in EMG activity of frontalis, corrugator, and orbicularis oris inferior muscles following task onset. In the Ss with declining performance, initial EMG increase passed into a decreasing trend towards the end of the task; in the stable performance groups, EMG increased uninterruptedly. Results support the hypothesis that EMG activity in particular facial muscles is related to the mobilization of aspecific energetic resources.

17. Muscle Tension in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Elevated Muscle Tonus or Agitated Movement?
    Hazlett, R.L., McLeon, D.M., Hoehn-Saric, R., Psychophysiology Vol. 31 (1994)
    Investigated the amplitude characteristics of frontalis and gastrocnemius EMG activity in clinically anxious and nonanxious populations. 18 women with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and 19 nonanxious women were compared during baseline., laboratory stressor, and recovery conditions. EMG mean levels were greater for the GAD group, but there were no group differences in EMG skewness. During the stressor the GAD group had a significant reduction in frontalis EMG variability. Gastrocnemius muscle activity for both groups during the stressor condition increased mean levels and variability while decreasing skewness. Results indicate that clinically anxious individuals have elevated muscular tonus and have reduced variability in frontalis activity during stressful tasks. Also, the gastrocnemius muscle exhibited a stressor reactivity, whereas the frontalis did not.

18. On the Distinct Meaning of Smiles and Frowns
    Pope, L.K., & Smith, C.A., Cognition & Emotion Vol. 8, (1994)
    Conducted a conceptual replication of the study by C.A. Smith et al (1989) to clarify the significance of the frown. 43 undergraduates, who were part of a larger investigation, imagined themselves in pleasant and unpleasant scenarios while muscle activities in the eyebrow and cheek regions were monitored using the EMG. Brow region activity was related to evaluations of motivational incongruence and perceived goal-obstacles, and, after taking these relationships into account, was uncorrelated with subjective pleasantness. Cheek activity was associated with subjective pleasantness and, after taking this relationship into account, nothing else. Results suggest that individual components of facial expressions directly encode information about emotional state and clarify the nature of the information encoded by the frown and the smile.

19. Looking at Pictures: Affective, Facial, Visceral, and Behavioral Reactions
    Lang, P.J., Greenwald, M.K., Bradley, M.M., & Hamm, A.O., Psychophysiology Vol. 30 (1993)
    Colored photographic pictures that varied widely across the affective dimensions of valence (pleasant-unpleasant) and arousal (excited-calm) were each viewed for a 6-sec period while facial electromyographic (zygomatic and corrugator muscle activity) and visceral (heart rate and skin conductance) reactions were measured in 33 female and 33 male university students. Judgements relating to pleasure, arousal, interest, and emotional state were measured, as was choice viewing time. Significant covariation was obtained between 91) facial expressions and affective valence judgements and (2) skin conductance magnitude and arousal ratings. Interest ratings and viewing time were also associated with arousal. Although differences due to the S's gender and cognitive style were obtained, affective responses were largely independent of the personality factors investigated.

20. Microexpressive Facial Actions as a Function of Affective Stimuli: Replication and Extension
    Cacioppo, J.T., Bush, L.K., & Tassinary, L.G., Psychological Science Vol. 18 (1992)
    Examined the effects of communicative intent and stimulus activity on facial EMG activity in 20 female undergraduates. Ss viewed slides of pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant social or nature scenes under no instruction, inhibit-expression instructions, and amplify-expression instructions. Results indicated that pleasant stimuli (both faces and scenes) were associated with lower EMG activity over the brow and higher EMG activity over the periocular region than were unpleasant stimuli. Facial EMG activity was highest in the amplify and lowest in the inhibit condition. Results suggest that facial efference can be altered by both affective and communicative processes even when it is too subtle to produce a socially perceptible facial expression.

21. Unobservable Facial Actions and Emotions
    Tassinary, L.G., & Cacioppo, J.T., Psychological Science, Vol. 3(1) (1992)
    Reviews research over the past decade showing that facial electromyograph (EMG) activity varies as a function of the intensity, valence and sociality of emotional stimuli and that facial EMG activity is slightly different in deliberately manipulated and spontaneous expressions of emotion. The multiply determined nature of facial actions and expressions, however, has limited the inferences that can be made about the psychological significance of facial EMG responses. These limitations have begun to recede in recent years as a result of advances in the psychometric properties of facial EMG measurements, the quantification of EMG waveforms and patterns, the conjoint measurement of facial EMG and electrocortical activity, the conceptualization of psychophysiological relations, and the formalization of psychophysiological inference.

22. Facial Electromyography and Emotional Reactions
    Dimberg, U., Psychophysiology, Vol. 27 (1990)
    Reviews data that were collected in the author's laboratory to determine whether the facial electromyogram (EMG) response is a general component of the emotional reaction. Results from several studies show that facial reactions were (1) spontaneously elicited and differed according to the kind of emotional stimuli to which Ss were exposed; (2)sensitive to learning; (3) consistent with how Ss perceived the stimuli and their own specific emotions; (4) congruent with autonomic responses; (5) more pronounced for females than males; and (6) different among Ss with specific fears. These data indicate that facial muscle activity is a general component of the emotional reaction. The facial EMG technique may be a sensitive tool for measuring emotional reactions.

23. Gender Differences in Facial Reactions to Facial Expressions
    Dimberg, U., Biological Psychology, Vol. 30(2) (April 1990)
    Examined whether the sex of the stimulus faces differentially influenced response patterns to facial stimuli. 24 male and 24 female psychology students were exposed to slides of angry and happy faces displayed by both sexes. Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity was measured from the corrugator and zygomatic muscle regions. The Ss were also required to rate the stimuli on different dimensions. Angry faces evoked increased corrugator activity whereas happy faces evoked increased zygomatic activity. These effects were more pronounced for females, particularly for the response to happy faces. There were no facial EMG effects for gender of stimulus. Males and females perceived the stimuli similarly. The results are consistent with previous findings (U. Dimberg, 1991) indicating that females are more facially reactive than are males.

24. Facial Electromyography and the Experience of Emotion
    Dimberg, U., Journal of Psychophysiology, Vol. 2-4 (1988)
    Explored whether different facial electro-myographic (EMG) reactions correspond to a change in the subjective experience of specific emotions. 22 college students were exposed to slides of angry and happy facial stimuli in a balanced order while their facial-EMG activity (corrugator and zygomatic muscle regions), autonomic activity (heart rate and skin conductance), and their experience of emotion were measured. Angry stimuli evoked increased corrugator activity, heart rate-deceleration, and reliably more fear as compared with the happy stimuli, whereas happy stimuli elicited increased zygomatic activity and more experience of happiness. Results support the proposition that facial muscles constitute an emotional output system and are intimately related to the experience of emotion.

25. Facial Electromyography, Fear Relevance and the Experience of Stimuli
    Dimberg, U., Journal of Psychophysiology Vol. 2(3) (1988)
    A study with 36 undergraduates demonstrated that Ss respond with different facial electromyographic (EMG) reactions and consistent experience of the stimuli when exposed to fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant stimuli. Two groups were exposed to slides of snakes or flowers while their facial EMG activity, autonomic reactions, and ratings of the stimuli were measured. Snakes elicited an increased corrugator response, a larger initial skin conductance response, and a phasic heart-rate deceleration, whereas flowers evoked an increased zygomatic activity. The snakes were experienced as more unpleasant and the flowers are more pleasant. Results are consistent with the proposition that the facial muscles are closely related to emotional reactions and that the facial EMG response reflects the emotional quality of the reaction.

26. Specific Forms of Facial EMG Response Index Emotions During an Interview: From Darwin to the Continuous Flow Hypothesis of Affect-laden Information Processing
    Cacioppo, J.T., Martzke, J.S., Petty, R.E., & Tassinary, L.G., Journal of Personality & Social Psychology Vol. 54 (1988)
    Previous research has demonstrated that mild negative emotional imagery and unpleasant sensory stimuli lead to greater electromyographic activity over the brow muscle region than mild positive imagery and stimuli, even in the absence of significant changes in visceral and general facial EMG activity. Previous research has not addressed whether electromyographic responses over the brow region are a sensitive and specific index of emotions, however, since a multiplicity of events lead to changes in brow activity. In this research, facial electromyographic  and audiovisual recordings were obtained while individuals were interviewed about themselves. Afterwards, individuals were asked to describe what they had been thinking of during specific segments of the interview marked by distinctive electromyographic responses over the brow region in the context of ongoing but stable levels of activity elsewhere in the face. The results are interpreted in terms of a continuous flow hypothesis of affect-laden information processing.

27. Emotional Responding Following Experimental Manipulation of Facial Electromyographic Activity
    McCanne, T. R. & Anderson, J.A., Journal of Personality & Social Psychology Vol. 52(4) 759-768 (April 1987)
    Thirty female subjects were instructed to imagine three positive affective scenes and three negative affective scenes. During the initial imagination of each scene, the subject was told simply to imagine the situation. The subject then imagined the situation again and was instructed to enhance the muscle tension in one of two muscle groups (the zygomatic muscles for positive scenes and the corrugator muscle for negative scenes). The subject then imagined the scene a third time and was instructed to suppress the muscle tension in the same muscle group. Feedback was available during practice trials and during the enhancement and suppression trials of the experiment. Continuous monitoring of both zygomatic and corrugator electromyogram (EMG) during the study indicated that subjects were successful in altering muscle tension in accord with the experimental instructions, and videotapes of subjects' faces indicated no overt changes in facial responding during imagination of the scenes. Subjects' ratings of emotional responding during each scene indicated that subjects experienced less enjoyment and more distress during positive affective trials in which they suppressed zygomatic EMG activity. The results are discussed in terms of the facial feedback hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
     

28. Electromyographic Activity Over Facial Muscle Regions Can Differentiate the Valence and Intensity of Affective Reactions
    Cacioppo, J.T., Petty, R.E., Losch, M.E., Kim, H.S., Journal of Personality & Social Psychology Vol. 50 (1986)
    Physiological measures like facial EMG go beyond assessing arousal and are in fact capable of distinguishing between positive and negative affective states. Sixteen subjects in a pilot study were exposed briefly to slides and tones that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity differentiated both the valence and intensity of the affective reaction. Interestingly independent judges were unable to determine from viewing videotapes of the subjects' facial displays whether a positive or negative stimulus had been presented. In the full experiment, 28 subjects briefly viewed slides of scenes that were mildly to moderately evocative of positive and negative affect. Again, EMG activity over the brow (corrugator supercilia), eye (orbicularis oculi), and cheek (zygomatic major) muscle regions differentiated the pleasantness and intensity of individuals' affective reactions to the visual stimuli even though visual inspection of the videotapes again indicated that expressions of emotion were not apparent. These results suggest that gradients of EMG activity over the muscles of facial expression can provide objective and continuous probes of affective processes that are too subtle or fleeting to be normally visible.

29. Facial Reactions to Facial Expressions
    Dimberg, U., Psychophysiology Vol. 19-6 (1982)
    Exposed 16 Swedish college students to 14 pictures of happy and angry facial expressions, in response to which their facial EMG activities, heart rate (HR), and palmar skin conductance responses (SCRs) were recorded. It was found that happy and angry faces evoked different facial EMG response patterns, with increased zygomatic region activity to happy stimuli and increased corrugator region activity to angry stimuli. Both happy and angry faces evoked HR declerations and similar SCR magnititudes. Results suggest that facial EMG recordings provide a method for distinguishing between response patterns to positive and negative emotional visual stimuli. This may allow for investigations of the hedonic tone of emotional reactions among verbal and nonverbal Ss (such as infants).
     

30. Relationships Between Facial Electromyography and Subjective Experience During Affective Imagery
    Brown S.L. & Schwartz G.E. Biological Psychology 11(1):49-62 (1980)
    Sixty subjects were exposed for 40 s each to 48 imagery situations designed to reflect happy, sad, angry and fearful conditions. Facial electromyographic (EMG) activity from zygomatic, corrugator, masseter and lateral frontalis muscle regions was recorded, and experienced emotion was measured on a scale tapping these four emotions. Results showed that: (1) zygomatic activity reliably differentiated happy imagery, corrugator activity reliably differentiated sad imagery, but masseter activity did not differentiate angry imagery and lateral frontalis activity did not differentiate fearful imagery; (2) different intensities of specific emotional imagery situations evoked the expected differential patterns of self-report and EMG; (3) higher correlations between self-report and EMG for 'present', rather than 'future' ratings of experienced emotion emerged for positive affect only; and (4) the use of a standardized imagery scale, rather than the self-generated, personally-relevant affective situations used in previous studies, allowed for more sensitive measurement of the relationship between facial muscle activity and subjective experience of emotion during affective imagery.

2000 to Present  |  Before 2000